🔧 Core Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs)
- Replaced transistors with integrated circuits, combining multiple components on a single chip.
- Invented by Jack Kilby in 1958, ICs made computers faster, smaller, and more reliable.
- Reduced power consumption and heat generation.
🖥️ Key Characteristics
- Size: More compact and space-efficient than previous generations.
- Speed: Faster processing—operations measured in nanoseconds.
- Programming: Supported high-level languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, PASCAL.
- Input/Output: Keyboards, monitors, and printers replaced punch cards.
- Reliability: Fewer hardware failures due to IC durability.
- Cost: More affordable and accessible for businesses and institutions.
🧠 Memory & Storage
- Used magnetic core memory for primary storage.
- Secondary storage included magnetic tapes and disks.
- Improved data access and storage capacity.
🧪 Applications
- Commercial data processing
- Scientific research and engineering
- Government and military systems
- Time-sharing and remote processing
🧑🔬 Notable Examples
| Computer | Year | Description |
|---|---|---|
| IBM System/360 | 1964 | Revolutionary family of computers with ICs and broad compatibility. |
| UNIVAC 1108 | 1967 | Used for scientific and business applications. |
| Honeywell 6180 | 1970 | Supported time-sharing and advanced OS features. |
| PDP-11 | 1970 | Popular minicomputer with modular design. |
| Xerox Alto | 1973 | Early personal computer with graphical interface. |
✅ Advantages
- Compact and energy-efficient
- Improved speed and reliability
- Support for high-level programming languages
- Better user interaction with keyboards and monitors
- Greater storage and processing capabilities
❌ Disadvantages
- Still required air conditioning for large systems
- Complex IC manufacturing and maintenance
- High initial setup cost
- Limited software compatibility with older systems
- Skilled workforce needed for operation